Metafísica
A metafísica é o ramo da filosofia que estuda os princípios subjacentes ou a natureza da realidade e a origem e estrutura dos tipos de categorias definitivas desses conceitos. Ela está preocupada com o estudo das noções primitivas (aquelas que não podem ser deduzidas a partir de qualquer outra) e do ser. Definido como tal, é diferente da epistemologia filosófica e por isso não está em relação ao estudo de conhecimento. A metafísica envolve pensamento sobre conceitos abstratos não no nível de compreensão empírico encontrado dentro da metodologia científica. Isso inclui tópicos como a mente e o corpo, ou o que é chamado de o problema mente-corpo dentro da filosofia. Também há temas existenciais como ser, não-ser e existir normalmente colocado em foco sob a ontologia. Além disso o livre arbítrio e o teísmo são considerados temas metafísicos. Pensa-se que o teísmo clássico exprime características fundamentais do conceito cristão de Deus ao longo de sua história como uma filosofia e assim o Cristianismo é metafísica. A metafísica no entanto, no sentido mais filosófico mais amplo, fora do teísmo cristão, também interage com empíricas evidências através da razão e lógica, transcendendo passado apenas o espaço-tempo.
O The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy e Time, Change and Freedom: Introduction to Metaphysics respectivamente tentam definir a metafísica ao longo das mesmas linhas e, portanto, ambas lançam luz sobre a distinção entre ciência e metafísica.
“ | É de âmbito mais abrangente do que a ciência, por exemplo, física e até mesmo cosmologia (a ciência da natureza, estrutura e origem do universo como um todo), uma vez que uma das suas preocupações tradicionais é a existência de entidades não-físicas, por exemplo, Deus. Ela também é mais fundamental, uma vez que investiga questões que a ciência não endereça, mas as respostas a que se pressupõe.[1] | ” |
“ | No entanto, os temas que são estudados na metafísica não levam a previsões de observações e, consequentemente, disputantes neste campo devem contar com argumentos lógicos a partir de premissas e tentar demonstrar falácias lógicas no argumento de seu oponente.[2] | ” |
História
Antiga
A palavra metafísica vem das palavras gregas meta significando após ou além e física significando natureza. Simplificando, é o estudo de coisas que são "além da natureza". Aristóteles (384 aC – 322 aC) é considerado o criador dos termos e conceitos em torno de 300 aC em seus escritos chamados Física[1] e Metafísica[2]. Embora muitos dos mesmos temas foram discutidos e analisados em ambos os livros de Aristóteles, certos temas filosóficos foram classificados de forma que o que é considerado hoje como a metafísica é vista apenas como decorrentes da Metafísica por Aristóteles.
Platão (424 a 348 aC) também desenvolveu substancialmente o que se chama sua teoria das formas. A filosofia de Platão, que é chamado o platonismo, viu formas como objetos abstratos. Eles não são como o material do mundo natural, mas sim são ideias e são realmente o tipo mais alto e mais fundamental da realidade.
Moderna
Saul Kripke (nascido em 1940), um filósofo distinto da religião, tem feito um argumento famoso que mostra como a necessidade metafísica não é sempre o mesmo que o conhecimento a priori. Kripke oferece que "água é H₂O" como um exemplo de uma proposição que é metafisicamente necessária mas não pode ser alcançada com um a priori.[3] Aparentemente, é óbvio que, na verdade, tanto a água é necessariamente, e mais importante ainda um H₂O a priori. É difícil, no entanto, ver como esta estrutura molecular poderia ser conhecida somente pela mera reflexão (a priori). Os conceitos a priori são independentes da experiência empírica. Se não fosse pela descoberta da ciência da química a indispensabilidade da água ser H₂O nunca teria sido conhecida. O fato de que a proposição da água ser H₂O é empírica (a posteriori) não é a priori é um desenvolvimento considerável na história da filosofia. Devido ao fato de que a presunção geral entre os filósofos do passado de que a necessidade metafísica e a priori eram as mesmos foi derrubada, o cenário acadêmico contemporâneo da filosofia já não detém a essa noção. A priori permanece semelhante à necessidade metafísica, porque ambas são consideradas seus próprios conceitos filosóficos, mas acima de tudo porque ambas podem aplicar-se à mesma proposição.[4]
A cultura popular tende a relacionar a palavra metafísica com o ocultismo ou a Nova Era, mas não tem nada a ver com fenômenos psíquicos, reencarnação, viagens astrais, auras e coisas do gênero.[5] Em An Introduction to Metaphysics define o que exatamente a metafísica toca como uma filosofia.Os autores apresentam três definições possíveis e estabelecem o que chamam de "abordagem de definições por exemplo".
“ | E, finalmente, há a abordagem de definição por exemplo, de acordo com a qual a metafísica é o ramo da filosofia preocupado com tópicos como ontologia, tempo, o problema mente-corpo, o problema da identidade pessoal, o problema da liberdade e determinismo, leis da natureza, causalidade e objetos materiais (todos os quais serão discutidos extensivamente neste livro).[6] | ” |
Modalidade
Necessidade
As proposições metafisicamente necessárias significam que são verdadeiras. As proposições não podem ser falsas, não importa em que mundo possível as pessoas humanas possam existir. Alguns exemplos de proposições que são metafisicamente necessárias são;
- Todos os solteiros são solteiros
- Vermelho é uma cor
- 2+2=4
Necessidade física
Proposições que dependem de alguma lei da natureza. Por exemplo, uma pessoa humana não pode voar através da distância do Grand Canyon se tudo que eles têm são suas roupas. Isso ocorre porque não há nada para neutralizar a força gravitacional sobre um objeto, ou seja, a pessoa. Existe uma lei física (lei da natureza) em vigor chamada gravidade que impede a pessoa de agir de acordo com tais noções. Não é metafisicamente impossível, no entanto, mas antes contradiz uma lei da natureza do mundo real de forma que carece de necessidade física dentro da metafísica que permitiria tal coisa. Em outras palavras, as leis da natureza exigem que não aconteça de uma pessoa consiga voar pelo Grand Canyon.
“ | Dizer que algo é fisicamente possível é dizer que isso é permitido pelas leis da natureza. Portanto, um futuro fisicamente possível, em relação a um determinado tempo, é uma maneira pela qual as coisas poderiam continuar a partir dessa época, o que é permitido pelas leis da natureza. (E um futuro fisicamente impossível é aquele que não é permitido pelas leis.) Dizer que algo é fisicamente necessário, no entanto, é dizer, grosso modo, que é exigido pelas leis da natureza.[7] | ” |
Epistemological necessity
Propositions dependent upon the current state of what can be known. For example it was thought in medieval times that the earth was flat, for all that anybody knew it had the possibility of being true. However as time went on this epistemological necessity changed and now there is epistemological possibility within that the earth is not flat.
Non-necessity
Propositions that are not metaphysically necessary come in two flavors which are; impossible and contingent.
Metaphysically impossible
Propositions that are metaphysically impossible are basically those that violate the laws of logic. They cannot be true and have to be false. Some examples of metaphysically impossible propositions are;
- Not all bachelors are unmarried
- Red is not a color
- 2+2=5
Metaphysically contingent
Propositions that are contingent and can be either true or false or to put it another way they are not necessarily true nor necessarily false. Contingent propositions are dependent on what may happen in the unknown future. In other words there is a chance it may rain on Tuesday, would be an example of a metaphysically contingent proposition. Some other examples are;
- Kant is wise
- Red is the color of some sports cars
Possible Worlds
Possible worlds really covers possible space-time realities, not just a possible earth. A possible world consists of conjunctions. Conjunctions are many true propositions or their contradictory negations. This then presents what is referred to as the maximal description of reality. Each individual proposition connects to other propositions forming a conjunction, so that for there to be an actual possible world is to have all conjunctions to be true. So for instance, the proposition "The Prime Minister is a prime number" is not metaphysically necessary in any possible world, and therefore not true. This is simply because real-world experience with numbers show that they are really abstract objects. While people, the "Prime Minister" in the example above is called, within metaphysics, a concrete object. Which is of course also a human being or human person. It is concluded by the metaphysician that there is no possible world where, "The Prime Minister is a prime number" can be a true proposition.
To posit "God exists" in some possible world is to have a proposition that is "true in some maximal description of reality."[8]
Abstract Entities
An abstract entity or abstract object is some thing that lacks spatial-temporal properties. It exists in the form of a concept or idea, which is an abstraction as opposed to a concrete spatio-temporal object that it represents. Abstract entities do not have physical or tangible and measurable properties (which are considered corporeal properties). They are overarching generalities of specific things. Therefore abstract objects cannot be approached through the natural and physical limitations of the scientific method producing empirical knowledge (See: Materialism). Abstract entities are not physically located in space-time, lacking the nature of a body or substance and instead are what is called incorporeal.
“ | Abstract entities are said to be abstracted from particulars.[9] | ” |
Abstraction
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Concrete
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There are generally six main types of abstract objects. Traditionally within the branch of philosophy called metaphysics they are; numbers, sets, geometrical figures, propositions, properties and relations.
Numbers
Numbers are 0, 1, 2, 3, 5,000, 490, ... etc, having no causal power within nature but rather are considered descriptions or representations of laws. Many mathematicians think that numbers exist necessarily as opposed to contingently or having a cause of their being.
Sets
A set contains objects and becomes an object in its own right. A set is denoted by a capital letter and then an equals sign with the set listed in curly brackets. set A = {1, 2, 3}. A classic way to illustrate sets, or what is also called set theory within mathematics, is through a Venn diagram.[10]
Geometrical figures
Geometrical figures are a triangle or circle, or trapezoid. These are also examples of abstract entities. According to Robert Audi within The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy abstract entities like geometrical figures are not confined by particulars but are the general form;
“ | The abstract triangle has only the properties common to all triangles, and none peculiar to any particular triangles; it has no definite color, size, or specific type, such as isosceles or scalene.[11] | ” |
Propositions
In metaphysics, epistemology and even logic, three core branches of philosophy, propositions are fundamental for philosophizing. Propositions are the abstract contents of sentences. The meanings of thoughts within a declarative statement. A specific proposition can have the property of true or false (See: Epistemology). The belief either way is another type of metaphysical abstract entity, called a relation, from the person to the proposition. Being abstract, propositions can be written in different languages. English and French for example could be used to write the same sentence in a different language but allow the same belief about actual reality. The differences in the languages do not effect belief in the proposition of the sentence in any way. It becomes merely a language and therefore translation issue. There does not remain reason to the notion that belief in a proposition is contingent upon the type of language used.
“ | It is important to distinguish between sentences and propositions. ... |
” |
Properties
The redness of the color red, or the shape of a book are considered properties.
Relations
The distance between two cities is considered a type of abstract entity called a relation. A belief is a relation between a subject and a proposition.
The mind-body problem
- Main Article: Mind
Creationists hold to a dualist view of the mind-body problem so that the mind is distinct from the human body or what should be referred to more specifically as the brain. It is important to note that the mind within the disciplines of philosophy or psychology is used as a synonym for the word soul that carries with it a more theological connotation. It is within philosophy of the mind as a discipline monists argue for no distinction or difference between the mind and brain. Ultimately monists conclude that both the mind or soul are purely physical. Materialism underpins a monist view of the mind-body problem. According to monism the human mind is nothing but the activity of the brain. The natural conclusion of this view is that when a person dies their mind ceases to exist. According to dualism the human mind transcends matter, being the spiritual component of our being. The natural conclusion of this view is that when a person dies their mind (soul) leaves their body and continues to exist.
Free will
- Main Article: Free will
Free will, moral responsibility or moral freedom is the action exorcised by an agent (human person capable of moral freedom) to act as they choose without antecedent conditions determining the action. The metaphysics of free will is important and deals with time, causation and ultimately crafting an individual worldview that either informs or informs and grounds morality. While theism coherently derives a moral ought from an is, it is not so easy to within the atheistic worldview where morality is no longer obligatory but a cultural relativity, merely adaptation of biological evolution.
Paradigms
Metaphysical paradigms are philosophical views about the universe itself. There are three dominant metaphysical paradigms related to creationism.
Naturalism
- Main Article: Metaphysical naturalism
Metaphysical naturalism or ontological naturalism is a worldview in which reality is composed of nothing but natural things, forces, and causes. All concepts related to consciousness or to the mind refer to entities which are reducible to the same such natural things, forces and causes. There is no objective existence of any supernatural thing, force or cause, such as are described in various religions and mythological accounts. All supernatural things are ultimately explainable purely in terms of natural things. Metaphysical naturalism is a monistic and not a dualistic view of reality. It is an ancient doctrine, and has existed in constant conflict with theism and supernaturalism, as exhibited by ancient manifestos of naturalism such as On the Nature of Things;
“ | It is now the dominant doctrine of modern science. The word naturalist today usually refers to one who holds this philosophy, although in the 19th century the term naturalist was used to refer to one who studied nature.[13] | ” |
For example, one naturalist wrote:
“ | Science is fundamentally a game. It is a game with one overriding and defining rule: Let us see how far and to what extent we can explain the behavior of the physical and material universe in terms of purely physical and material causes, without invoking the supernatural.[14] | ” |
Theism
- Main Article: Theism
Theism is the religious metaphysical philosophy that asserts God exists and that He created and sustains the cosmos. Classical theism states that the creator God not only exists but is omniscient, omnipresent, exists necessarily, nonphysical, eternal and essentially good. The most competitive alternative philosophy within the modern intellectual climate is metaphysical naturalism, an entrenched philosophy of science acting without the existence of God and the soul, preceding with the assumption of strict materialism.[15]
Supernaturalism
- Main Article: Supernaturalism
Supernaturalism is the belief that there are beings, forces, and phenomena such as God, angels or miracles which interact with the physical universe in remarkable and unique ways. Supernaturalism is a fundamental premise of theism. Theists by definition hold to a supernatural worldview which stands in contrast to the atheistic premise of naturalism, which denies the existence of any supernatural phenomena.
The word supernatural comes from the Latin word super meaning "above" plus nature. It should however be noted that although some supernatural phenomena may not be perceived by natural or empirical senses, a great many supernatural events have been witnessed in biblical and modern times. Numerous miracle events in history require a supernatural belief before they can be correctly understood or interpreted.
Theistic realism
- Main Article: Theistic realism
Theistic realism is the position that nature should be defined as how things are, rather than how we think things are. Thus, when God interacts with the universe, those activities are just as natural as anything else. Acts by God do not violate the laws of nature. Instead, they reflect laws of nature which we cannot yet understand. Since the purpose of science is to understand nature, and God acts naturally, the purpose of science is to understand God.
Popular Questions
Metaphysical studies can concern difficult, perhaps unanswerable, questions bordering theology, and includes any suggestion that something, not immediately obvious, does exist.
Some examples of metaphysical types of questions are:
- What exists?
- What entities form this universe?
- Can we act freely?
- What is it for something to exist?
- How are causes related to their effects?
- What is time?
- What is space?
- Are there substances outside of space-time?
- How is change possible?
- Why is there something rather than nothing?
- What is the mind and body?
- Do objective moral values and duties exist?
- Does the human person have a soul, mind, spirit, immaterial existence?
- Is the human mind corporeal or incorporeal?
Referências
- ↑ Robert Audi, Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (Cambridge University Press, 2nd Edition 1999), pg. 563
- ↑ Quentin Smith and L. Nathan Oaklander, Time, Change and Freedom: Introduction to Metaphysics (Routledge University Press 2005), pg. 5
- ↑ Naming and Necessity Por Saul Kripke, pg. 116
- ↑ John W. Carroll and Ned Markosian, An Introduction to Metaphysics (Cambridge University Press 2010), pg. 6-7
- ↑ John W. Carroll e Ned Markosian, An Introduction to Metaphysics (Cambridge University Press 2010), pg. 1."Let’s start with what metaphysics is not. Metaphysics – as we are using the term – is not the study of the occult."
- ↑ John W. Carroll and Ned Markosian, An Introduction to Metaphysics (Cambridge University Press 2010), pg. 4
- ↑ John W. Carroll and Ned Markosian, An Introduction to Metaphysics (Cambridge University Press 2010), pg. 49
- ↑ William Lane Craig, Reasonable Faith: Christian Truth and Apologetics (Crossway 3rd Edition, 2008), pg. 184
- ↑ Robert Audi, Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (Cambridge University Press, 2nd Edition 1999), pg. 3
- ↑ Venn diagram By Wikipedia
- ↑ Robert Audi, Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (Cambridge University Press, 2nd Edition 1999), pg. 3
- ↑ Noah Lemos, An Introduction to the Theory of Knowledge (Cambridge University Press 2007), pg. 2
- ↑ On the Nature of Things By Carus, Titus Lucretius. Accessed 2011-01-03
- ↑ Richard Dickerson, Journal of Molecular Evolution 34:277, 1992
- ↑ William Lane Craig and J. P. Moreland, The Blackwell Companion to Natural Theology (Blackwell Publishing 2009), pg. 8
External Links
- Is God ‘simple’? Published: 10 December 2011. Brian H. from the United States writes in response to article The importance of correct history and theology. CMI’s Shaun Doyle responds with his comments interspersed:]
- The Religion of Evolution by Gary DeMar, September 30, 2002
- Created Kinds and Essential Natures: A Biblical and Philosophical Response to Evolutionists by Callie Joubert, July 27, 2011. Answers Research Journal 4 (2011): 103-112.
- Broader Implications of ID
- Metaphysics Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Aristotle's Metaphysics Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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