Phillip Johnson
Phillip E. Johnson (June 18, 1940 – November 2, 2019) [1] was a graduate of Harvard University and the University of Chicago Law School. He served as a law clerk for Chief Justice Earl Warren of the United States Supreme Court, and has taught law for more than thirty years since at the University of California, Berkeley. For the last decade he has also been at the forefront of the public debate over evolution and creation. He is recognized as the leading spokesman for the intelligent design movement, and he has taken his message to such places as the New York Times and the Wall Street Journal. Johnson travels frequently to speak at conferences and with television and radio audiences. He has appeared on Chuck Colson's Breakpoint, on Business News Network's Consumer Hotline, on James Dobson's Focus on the Family and with Ted Koppel on ABC News's Nightline.
Phillip E. Johnson was an American legal scholar who was the Jefferson E. Peyser Professor of Law at the University of California, Berkeley.[2] He was an opponent of evolutionary science, co-founder of the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture (CSC), and one of the co-founders of the intelligent design movement, along with William Dembski and Michael Behe.[3] Johnson described himself as "in a sense the father of the intelligent design movement".[4]
Johnson was an opponent of "fully naturalistic evolution, involving chance mechanisms and natural selection".[5] Johnson argued that scientists accepted the theory of evolution "before it was rigorously tested, and thereafter used all their authority to convince the public that naturalistic processes are sufficient to produce a human from a bacterium, and a bacterium from a mix of chemicals."[6]
- Jefferson E. Peyser Professor of Law Emeritus
- Boalt School of Law - University of California, Berkeley
Biography
Early life and education
Johnson was born in Aurora, Illinois, on June 18, 1940.[7] He received a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) degree in English literature from Harvard University in 1961, then studied law at the University of Chicago, where he graduated at the top of his class with a J.D. degree in 1965.[8][2] He served as a law clerk for Chief Justice Roger J. Traynor of the California Supreme Court from 1965–1966, then clerked for Chief Justice Earl Warren at the Supreme Court of the United States from 1966–1967.[9] In January 1966, Johnson became a member of the State Bar of California.[10]
Career
From 1967 to 2000, Johnson was an active professor of law at the University of California, Berkeley, School of Law and retained the title of professor emeritus at the time of his death. Johnson served as deputy district attorney and held visiting professorships at Emory University and at University College London.[11]
At the age of 38, Johnson became a born again Christian following a divorce,[12] and later became an elder in the Presbyterian Church (USA).[13] Johnson recounted that while on a sabbatical in England he sought, through prayer, inspiration for what he should do with the rest of his life, and then received an epiphany after he read Richard Dawkins' The Blind Watchmaker (1986) and Michael Denton's Evolution: A Theory in Crisis (1985). Johnson later said, "Something about the Darwinists' rhetorical style made me think they had something to hide."[14] Johnson stated that he approached the creation evolution dispute not as a scientist but as an academic lawyer by profession, with a specialty in analyzing the logic of arguments and identifying the assumptions that lie behind those arguments. He noted that what people think about evolutionism depends very heavily on the kind of logic they employ and the kind of assumptions they make. Further, he pointed out that four of the eleven members of the special committee appointed by the National Academy of Sciences to prepare its official booklet titled Science and Creationism were lawyers.[15] (That first edition of the publication, which was finished in 1984, was prepared as an amicus brief in the Edwards v. Aguillard case that went before the U.S. Supreme Court.[16]) In 1989, Of Pandas and People by Percival Davis and Dean H. Kenyon was published as the first book to promote intelligent design.[17]
The first edition of Darwin on Trial was published in 1991. In notes listing his sources, Johnson said about Of Pandas and People that "This book is 'creationist' only in the sense that it juxtaposes a paradigm of 'intelligent design' with the dominant paradigm of (naturalistic) evolution, and makes the case for the former. It does not rely on the authority of the Bible."[17] Following that, Johnson sought supporters for his "Wedge Strategy".[12] In the ID blog Evolution News, Casey Luskin described him as the godfather of the intelligent design movement,[18] and PBS said he was "known as the father of intelligent design".[19]
Johnson was a critic of methodological naturalism, the basic principle that science can only investigate natural causes for observable phenomena, and espoused a philosophy he called "theistic realism."[20] He was the author of several books on intelligent design, science, philosophy, and religion, as well as textbooks on criminal law. He has appeared on various programs such as PBS's Firing Line[21] and a Nova episode, "Judgment Day: Intelligent Design on Trial."[22]
Personal life and death
Beginning in 2001, Johnson suffered a series of minor right brain strokes. His rehabilitations limited his public activities and participation in the debate on intelligent design, because of both their physical effects and Johnson's belief that they were signs from God urging him to spend more time with his faith and family and less in prideful debate.[23] In 2004, he was awarded the inaugural "Phillip E. Johnson Award for Liberty and Truth" by Biola University, a private evangelical Christian college noted for its promotion of intelligent design.[24] Johnson had two children and lived with his wife in Berkeley, California.[25][26]
Johnson died in early November 2019 at his home.[27][28]
Intelligent design
Johnson was known as one of the founders of the intelligent design movement, principal architect of the wedge strategy, and the author of the Santorum Amendment.
Johnson rejects common descent and does not take a position on the age of the Earth.[29][30] These concepts are a common theme in his books, including Darwin on Trial, Reason in the Balance: The Case Against Naturalism in Science, Law & Education (1995), Defeating Darwinism by Opening Minds (1997), and The Wedge of Truth: Splitting the Foundations of Naturalism (2000). Working through the Center for Science and Culture, Johnson wrote the early draft language of the Santorum Amendment, which encouraged a "Teach the Controversy" approach to evolution in public school education.[31]
Nancy Pearcey, a Center for Science and Culture fellow and Johnson associate, credits Johnson's leadership of the intelligent design movement in two of her most recent publications. In an interview with Johnson for World magazine, Pearcey says, "It is not only in politics that leaders forge movements. Phillip Johnson has developed what is called the 'Intelligent Design' movement ..."[32] In Christianity Today, she reveals Johnson's religious beliefs and his criticism of evolution and affirms Johnson as "The unofficial spokesman for ID"[33]
Darwin on Trial
In the book Darwin on Trial, 1991, Johnson disputed the tenets of evolution and promoted Intelligent design. He wrote the book with the thesis that evolution could be "tried" like a defendant in court. Darwin on Trial became a central text of the intelligent design movement.[34]
Wedge strategy
In its earliest days the intelligent design movement was called the 'wedge movement'. The wedge metaphor, attributed to Johnson, is that of a metal wedge splitting a log and represents using an aggressive public relations program to create an opening for the supernatural in the public's understanding of science.[35] Johnson acknowledges that the goal of the intelligent design movement is to promote a theistic agenda as a scientific concept.[36][37][38]
According to Johnson, the wedge movement, if not the term, began in 1992:
| “ | "The movement we now call the wedge made its public debut at a conference of scientists and philosophers held at Southern Methodist University in March 1992, following the publication of my book Darwin on Trial. The conference brought together as speakers some key Wedge figures, particularly Michael Behe, Stephen Meyer, William Dembski, and myself."[39] | ” |
Rob Boston of Americans United for Separation of Church and State described the wedge strategy:
| “ | "The objective [of the wedge strategy] is to convince people that Darwinism is inherently atheistic, thus shifting the debate from creationism vs. evolution to the existence of God vs. the non-existence of God. From there people are introduced to 'the truth' of the Bible and then 'the question of sin' and finally 'introduced to Jesus.'"[40] | ” |
Johnson is one of the authors of the Discovery Institute's Wedge Document and its "Teach the Controversy" campaign, which attempts to cast doubt on the validity of the theory of evolution, its acceptance within the scientific community, and reduce its role in public school science curricula while promoting intelligent design. The "Teach the Controversy" campaign portrays evolution as "a theory in crisis."
In his 1997 book Defeating Darwinism by Opening Minds Johnson summed up the underlying philosophy of his advocacy for intelligent design and against methodological and philosophical naturalism:
| “ | "If we understand our own times, we will know that we should affirm the reality of God by challenging the domination of materialism and naturalism in the world of the mind. With the assistance of many friends I have developed a strategy for doing this, ... We call our strategy the 'wedge.'"[41] | ” |
Johnson has described the wedge strategy as:
- "We are taking an intuition most people have [the belief in God] and making it a scientific and academic enterprise. We are removing the most important cultural roadblock to accepting the role of God as creator."[42]
- "Our strategy has been to change the subject a bit, so that we can get the issue of intelligent design, which really means the reality of God, before the academic world and into the schools."[36]
- "This isn't really, and never has been, a debate about science. It's about religion and philosophy."[37]
- "So the question is: 'How to win?' That's when I began to develop what you now see full-fledged in the 'wedge' strategy: 'Stick with the most important thing' —the mechanism and the building up of information. Get the Bible and the Book of Genesis out of the debate because you do not want to raise the so-called Bible-science dichotomy. Phrase the argument in such a way that you can get it heard in the secular academy and in a way that tends to unify the religious dissenters. That means concentrating on, 'Do you need a Creator to do the creating, or can nature do it on its own?' and refusing to get sidetracked onto other issues, which people are always trying to do."[13]
When asked how best to raise doubts and question evolution with non-believers, Johnson responded:
| “ | "What I am not doing is bringing the Bible into the university and saying, 'We should believe this.' Bringing the Bible into question works very well when you are talking to a Bible-believing audience. But it is a disastrous thing to do when you are talking, as I am constantly, to a world of people for whom the fact that something is in the Bible is a reason for not believing it.
You see, if they thought they had good evidence for something, and then they saw it in the Bible, they would begin to doubt. That is what has to be kept out of the argument if you are going to do what I to do, which is to focus on the defects in their [the evolutionist's] case—the bad logic, the bad science, the bad reasoning, and the bad evidence."[43] |
” |
Wedge of Truth
The book Wedge of Truth, published by Johnson in 2000, is an expansion of the Wedge Document. He states that truth has the ability to speak for itself.[44]
Career Highlights
Law
- Law Clerk, Chief Justice Roger Traynor, 1965-66 (California Supreme Court)
- Law Clerk, Chief Justice Earl Warren, 1966-67 (United States Supreme Court)
- Deputy District Attorney (Criminal Trial Prosecutor), Ventura Country, California, 1968, 1972
Education
- Professor of Law, Boalt School of Law at the University of California (Berkeley), 1967 - 2000
- Associate Dean, University of California (Berkeley), 1977 - 1980
- Visiting Professor, Emory University School of Law, 1982 - 1983
- Visiting Professor, University College (London, England), 1987 - 1988
Publications
Darwinism
- Darwin on Trial (1991) by Phillip Johnson
- Defeating Darwinism by Opening Minds by Phillip Johnson
- Reason in the Balance by Phillip Johnson
- The Wedge of Truth by Phillip Johnson
- Phillip E. Johnson at the Northwest Theologic Seminary Summer 2004
- Johnson, Phillip E. (1990). Evolution as Dogma: The Establishment of Naturalism. Dallas, TX: Haughton Pub. Co.. LCCN 00268240. OCLC 27190651.
- Johnson, Phillip E. (1995). Reason in the Balance: The Case Against Naturalism in Science, Law & Education. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-1610-1. LCCN 95012620. OCLC 32384818. https://archive.org/details/reasoninbalancec00john.
- Johnson, Phillip E. (1998). Objections Sustained: Subversive Essays on Evolution, Law & Culture. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-1941-6. LCCN 98006866. OCLC 38898010. https://archive.org/details/objectionssustai00john.
- Johnson, Phillip E. (2000). The Wedge of Truth: Splitting the Foundations of Naturalism. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-2267-6. LCCN 00039586. OCLC 43903750. https://archive.org/details/wedgeoftruthspli0000john.
- Johnson, Phillip E.; Reynolds, John Mark (2010). Against All Gods: What's Right and Wrong About the New Atheism. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-3738-0. LCCN 2010000182. OCLC 460060927.
- Johnson, Phillip E. (2010). Darwin on Trial. New introduction by Michael Behe (20th anniversary, 3rd ed.). Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books. ISBN 978-0-8308-3831-8. LCCN 2010019862. OCLC 615339705.
Criminal law
- Johnson, Phillip E. (1975). The Elements of Criminal Due Process: Cases, Materials, and Text. Criminal Justice Series. St. Paul, MN: West Pub Co. LCCN 75026046. OCLC 1914558.
- Arnold, Brian G.; Caves, Amy Melissa; Rose, Paul; Johnson, Phillip E. (2002). Blatt, Dana L.. ed. West Group High Court Case Summaries. Criminal Law: Keyed to Johnson's Casebook on Criminal Law (7th ed.). Eagan, MN: West Group. ISBN 978-0-314-14529-1. LCCN 2003265465. OCLC 56517350.
- Johnson, Phillip E.; Cloud, Morgan (2005). Constitutional Criminal Procedure: From Investigation to Trial. American Casebook Series (4th ed.). St. Paul, MN: Thomson/West. ISBN 978-0-314-25660-7. LCCN 2005282241. OCLC 61330436.
See Also
External Links
- Darwin on Trial website
- Johnson's Homepage
- Phillip Johnson by Access Research Network
- Articles by Phillip E. Johnson in Touchstone Magazine: A Journal of Mere Christianity, a bimonthly Christian publication
- The Religion of the Blind Watchmaker
- "Origin of the Specious" – an article by Ronald Bailey, published in the July 1997 issued of Reason magazine, concerns the development of intelligent design
- Johnson's writings on HIV and AIDS at the VirusMyth website
- "The Terrible Strength and Weakness of Naturalism" Webarchive July 5, 2008 – an interview of Phillip E. Johnson with Tal Brooke. SCP Journal. Vol. 21:4–22:1. Spring 1998. ISSN: 0883-1300
Notes
- ↑ Silliman, Daniel (2019-11-05). "Died: Phillip E. Johnson, Lawyer Who Put Darwin on Trial" (in en). https://www.christianitytoday.com/news/2019/november/died-phillip-e-johnson-intelligent-design-darwin-trial.html. Retrieved 2024-06-18.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Berring, Robert (2020). "In Memoriam: Phillip E. Johnson". https://senate.universityofcalifornia.edu/in-memoriam/files/phillip-johnson.html. Retrieved 2024-06-18.
- ↑ Glanz, James (2001-04-08). "Darwin vs. Design: Evolutionists' New Battle" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2001/04/08/us/darwin-vs-design-evolutionists-new-battle.html.
- ↑ "Defending Intelligent Design - NOVA". 6 April 2007. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/defense-intelligent-design/. Retrieved 7 November 2017.
- ↑ Johnson 1991, chapter 1.
- ↑ Johnson 1991, chapter 12.
- ↑ Branch, Glenn (November 5, 2019). "Phillip Johnson dies" (in en). https://ncse.ngo/phillip-johnson-dies. Retrieved 2024-06-19.
- ↑ Stafford, Tim (8 December 1997). "The Making of a Revolution". https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/1997/december8/7te016.html. Retrieved 16 May 2019.
- ↑ Johnson, Philip E. (1997). "Inherit the Wind: The Play's the Thing". Regent University Law Review 13 (2): 279–288. https://www.regent.edu/acad/schlaw/student_life/studentorgs/lawreview/docs/issues/v13n2/13RegentULRev279.pdf.
- ↑ "Phillip E Johnson". San Francisco, CA. http://members.calbar.ca.gov/fal/Member/Detail/37531. Retrieved December 26, 2013.
- ↑ "Faculty Profiles". Berkeley, CA: UC Berkeley School of Law. http://www.law.berkeley.edu/php-programs/faculty/facultyProfile.php?facID=57. Retrieved December 26, 2013.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Forrest, Barbara (2001). "The Wedge at Work: How Intelligent Design Creationism is Wedging its Way into the Cultural and Academic Mainstream." In Pennock, Robert T (ed.). Intelligent Design Creationism and Its Critics: Philosophical, Theological, and Scientific Perspectives. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-66124-9. LCCN 2001031276. OCLC 46729201.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Johnson, Phillip E. (June 2002). Interview with James M. Kushiner. "Berkeley's Radical". Touchstone: A Journal of Mere Christianity (Chicago, IL: Fellowship of St. James) 15 (5). ISSN 0897-327X. http://touchstonemag.com/archives/article.php?id=15-05-037-i. Retrieved December 26, 2013. Johnson interviewed in November 2000.
- ↑ Dembski, William A., ed. (2006). "Darwin's Nemesis: Phillip Johnson and the Intelligent Design Movement." Foreword by Rick Santorum. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic. ISBN 978-0-8308-2836-4. LCCN 2005033144. OCLC 62330745.
- ↑ Johnson 2010, p. 32, n.3.
- ↑ Labov, Jay B.; Kline Pope, Barbara (March 2008). "Understanding Our Audiences: The Design and Evolution of Science, Evolution, and Creationism". CBE: Life Sciences Education 7 (1): 20–24. ISSN 1931-7913. PMC 2262128. PMID 18316803. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2262128.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 Stefaan Blancke; Hans Henrik Hjermitslev; Peter C. Kjærgaard (27 November 2014). Creationism in Europe. JHU Press. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-1-4214-1563-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=-gOhBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT11. (foreword by Ron Numbers)
- ↑ "Why Phillip Johnson Matters: A Biography | Evolution News" (in en-US). Evolution News. 2011-11-17. https://evolutionnews.org/2011/11/the_significance_of_phillip_jo/.
- ↑ "Defending Intelligent Design — NOVA". October 2007. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/defense-intelligent-design/. Retrieved 2018-07-01.
- ↑ Johnson, Phillip E. (May–June 1996). "Third-Party Science". Books & Culture 2 (3). http://www.ctlibrary.com/bc/1996/mayjun/6b3030.html. Retrieved December 26, 2013. Article reprinted in full by Access Research Network here.
- ↑ "A Firing Line Debate: Resolved: That the Evolutionists Should Acknowledge Creation." Firing Line (Debate special). Episode 203. December 19, 1997. PBS. Archived from the original on October 21, 2013. Retrieved December 26, 2013. Video on YouTube.
- ↑ "Discovery Institute Responses to PBS/NOVA's "Judgment Day: Intelligent Design on Trial" Movie | Evolution News" (in en-US). Evolution News. 2009-02-11. https://evolutionnews.org/2009/02/discovery_institute_responses/.
- ↑ Condon, Kevin (September 1, 2004). "The Right Questions". Denver Journal 7. OCLC 54379462. https://denverseminary.edu/resources/news-and-articles/the-right-questions/. Retrieved March 23, 2018.
- ↑ "Antony Flew Receives Award From Intelligent Design Community". La Mirada, CA. http://www.biola.edu/academics/sas/scienceandreligion/news/antonyflew/. Retrieved December 26, 2013.
- ↑ Linder, Doug. "Biography of Phillip E. Johnson". http://www.famous-trials.com/legacyftrials/conlaw/johnsonp.html. Retrieved 2017-06-02.
- ↑ "Berkeley's Radical: An Interview with Phillip Johnson". http://www.arn.org/docs/johnson/le_berkeleysradical.htm. Retrieved 2017-06-02.
- ↑ Klinghoffer, David (November 3, 2019). "Remembering Phillip E. Johnson (1940-2019): The Man Who Lit the Match". https://evolutionnews.org/2019/11/remembering-phillip-e-johnson-1940-2019-the-man-who-lit-the-match/.
- ↑ Reynolds, John Mark (November 3, 2019). "Gandalf Has Gone to the West (Phillip E. Johnson)". https://www.patheos.com/blogs/eidos/2019/11/gandalf-has-gone-to-the-west-phillip-e-johnson/.
- ↑ Powell, Michael (May 15, 2005). "Doubting Rationalist". The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/14/AR2005051401222.html.
- ↑ Olasky (January 27, 2004). "Creationists and Intelligent Design". Asheville, NC: God's World Publications. ISSN 0888-157X. http://www.worldmagblog.com/blog/archives/000729.html.
- ↑ Larson, Edward J. (March 29, 2006). "Biology Wars: The Religion, Science and Education Controversy". Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center. http://www.pewforum.org/files/2006/03/evolution-creationism-intelligent-design.pdf. Retrieved December 26, 2013. "That language, which was penned by Phil Johnson for Rick Santorum, passed the Senate as an amendment to the No Child Left Behind education bill, and eventually became part of the conference report for that legislation."
- ↑ Pearcey, Nancy R. (July 29, 2000). "Wedge Issues". World 15 (29). ISSN 0888-157X. http://www.worldmag.com/2000/07/wedge_issues. Retrieved December 26, 2013.
- ↑ Pearcey, Nancy R. (May 22, 2000). "We're Not in Kansas Anymore". Christianity Today. ISSN 0009-5753. http://www.arn.org/docs/pearcey/np_ctoday052200.htm. Retrieved December 26, 2013.
- ↑ Stewart, Robert (2007). Intelligent design: William A. Dembski Michael Ruse in dialogue. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-8006-6218-9. "Most observers, both within and without the ID community, recognize University of California Berkeley law professor Phillip E, Johnson as the father of ID, and his 1991 book, Darwin on Trial [...] as a landmark moment in the history of the movement."
- ↑ Forrest, Barbara (May 2007). "Understanding The Intelligent Design Creationist Movement: Its True Nature and Goals". Washington, D.C.: Center for Inquiry. https://centerforinquiry.org/uploads/attachments/intelligent-design.pdf. Retrieved December 26, 2013.
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 Nickson, Elizabeth (February 6, 2004). "Let's Be Intelligent about Darwin". National Post (Toronto, Ontario: Postmedia Network). ISSN 1486-8008. http://elizabethnickson.com/darwin.htm.
- ↑ 37.0 37.1 Grelen, Jay (November 30, 1996). "Witnesses for the prosecution". World 11 (28): 18. ISSN 0888-157X. http://www.worldmag.com/1996/11/witnesses_for_the_prosecution. Retrieved February 16, 2014.
- ↑ Buell & Hearn 1994
- ↑ Johnson, Phillip E. (July–August 1999). "The Wedge: Breaking the Modernist Monopoly on Science". Touchstone: A Journal of Mere Christianity 12 (4). ISSN 0897-327X. http://www.touchstonemag.com/archives/article.php?id=12-04-018-f. Retrieved December 26, 2013.
- ↑ Boston, Rob (April 1999). "Missionary Man". Church & State. ISSN 2163-3746. https://www.au.org/church-state/april-1999-church-state/featured/missionary-man. Retrieved December 26, 2013.
- ↑ Johnson, Phillip E. (1997). "Defeating Darwinism by Opening Minds." pp. 91-92. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-1360-5. LCCN 97012916. OCLC 36621960.
- ↑ Watanabe, Teresa (March 25, 2001). "Enlisting Science to Find the Fingerprints of a Creator". Los Angeles Times. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2001-mar-25-mn-42548-story.html.
- ↑ Johnson, Phillip E.. "How to Debate the Issue". Fort Lauderdale, FL: Coral Ridge Ministries. http://www.kennedycommentary.org/default.asp?pg=topicmessage&id=666. Retrieved December 26, 2013.
- ↑ Johnson, Phillip E. (2000). "The Wedge of Truth: Splitting the Foundations of Naturalism." p. 13. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-2267-6. LCCN 00039586. OCLC 43903750.
References
- Buell, Jon A.; Hearn, Virginia, eds. (March 26–28, 1992). "Darwinism: Science or Philosophy". Darwinism: Scientific Inference or Philosophical Preference?. Richardson, TX: Foundation for Thought and Ethics. ISBN 0-9642104-0-1. LCCN 94094523. OCLC 31602282. http://ebd10.ebd.csic.es/pdfs/DarwSciOrPhil.pdf.
- Dembski, William A., ed. (2006). Darwin's Nemesis: Phillip Johnson and the Intelligent Design Movement. Foreword by Rick Santorum. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic. ISBN 978-0-8308-2836-4. LCCN 2005033144. OCLC 62330745. https://archive.org/details/darwinsnemes_xxxx_2006_000_10458437.
- Epstein, Steven (1996). Impure Science: AIDS, Activism, and the Politics of Knowledge. Medicine and Society. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. pp. 1–466. ISBN 978-0-520-20233-7. LCCN 96016805. OCLC 470187113. PMID 11619509. https://archive.org/details/impurescienceaid00epst.
- Forrest, Barbara (2001). "The Wedge at Work: How Intelligent Design Creationism Is Wedging Its Way into the Cultural and Academic Mainstream". In Pennock, Robert T. Intelligent Design Creationism and Its Critics: Philosophical, Theological, and Scientific Perspectives. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-66124-9. LCCN 2001031276. OCLC 46729201. http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/barbara_forrest/wedge.html.
- Murphy, Nancey (2001). "Phillip Johnson on Trial: A Critique of His Critique of Darwin". In Pennock, Robert T. Intelligent Design Creationism and Its Critics: Philosophical, Theological, and Scientific Perspectives. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-66124-9. LCCN 2001031276. OCLC 46729201. http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/barbara_forrest/wedge.html.
- Pennock, Robert T. (1999). Tower of Babel: The Evidence Against the New Creationism. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-16180-0. LCCN 98027286. OCLC 39262003. https://archive.org/details/towerofbabelevid00penn.
- Stewart, Robert B., ed. (2007). Intelligent Design: William A. Dembski & Michael Ruse in Dialogue. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. ISBN 978-0-8006-6218-9. LCCN 2007027505. OCLC 148895223.
