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Morphine: Difference between revisions
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== How Morphine Works == | == How Morphine Works == | ||
[[Image:example.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Description]] | [[Image:example.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Description]] | ||
Morphine acts on the central nervous system by binding to opioid receptors. It binds primarily to the mu-receptors in the thalamic, hypothalamic, and amygdalar regions of the brain, as well as the periaqueductal grey area of the brain | Morphine acts on the central nervous system by binding to opioid receptors. It binds primarily to the mu-receptors in the thalamic, hypothalamic, and amygdalar regions of the brain, the nucleus caudatus, the putamen, and certain cortical areas, as well as the periaqueductal grey area of the brain, the ''substantia gelatinosa'' region of the spinal cord, and the spinal nucleus of the trigeminal nerve<ref name=emsb/><ref name=toxipedia/><ref name=newsmedical2>[http://www.news-medical.net/health/Morphine-Pharmacology.aspx]</ref>. It can also bind to kappa and delta-type opioid receptors<ref name=toxipedia>[http://toxipedia.org/display/toxipedia/Morphine]</ref>. | ||
In the brain, morphine works by altering the body's perception of pain. It binds to pain receptors and keeps them from receiving pain signals and imitates endorphins and dynorphins to produce euphoria<ref name=toxipedia/>. When morphine binds to and activates the mu-receptors, this also causes sedation, physical dependence, and respiratory depression<ref name=newsmedical2/>. Morphine also attaches to GABA inhibitory interneurons that control the inhibition of pain. The morphine blocks pain receptors, preventing endorphins and dynorphins from binding there, and it inhibits the release of neurotransmitters in the opioid receptors<ref name=drugbank>[http://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB00295]</ref>. Morphine can bind to these receptors because it has the same B-phenylthylamine unit that endorphins have. LSD and many other hallucinogens also possess this unit and can bind to the same sites<ref name=toxipedia/>. In the spinal cord, morphine decreases the amount of pain stimuli that reach the brain from the body<ref name=nda>[http://www.nda.ox.ac.uk/wfsa/html/u03/u03_016.htm]</ref>. | |||
== Chemical Structure == | == Chemical Structure == | ||
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Freidrich Wilhelm Adam Serturner (1783-1841), a German pharmacist's assistant, first derived morphine from opium in 1803. After several experiments, he isolted an organic alkaloid from opium and found that this alkaloid was ten times more powerful than opium itself. He named this new substance morphine after Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams, due to morphine's ability to induce sleep<ref name=morphineaddictionhelp/>. Sertürner and Company first marketed morphine to the public in 1817<ref name=newsmedical>[http://www.news-medical.net/health/Morphine-History.aspx]</ref>. | Freidrich Wilhelm Adam Serturner (1783-1841), a German pharmacist's assistant, first derived morphine from opium in 1803. After several experiments, he isolted an organic alkaloid from opium and found that this alkaloid was ten times more powerful than opium itself. He named this new substance morphine after Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams, due to morphine's ability to induce sleep<ref name=morphineaddictionhelp/>. Sertürner and Company first marketed morphine to the public in 1817<ref name=newsmedical>[http://www.news-medical.net/health/Morphine-History.aspx]</ref>. | ||
Morphine became more commonly used in the medical community after French physician Francois Magendie published a paper in 1818 describing the use of morphine to treat pain in a young girl and help her sleep<ref name=morphineaddictionhelp/>. Interestingly, morphine was often used at first to cure opium addictions as well as alcohol addictions, because doctors at the time considered morphine less harmful than alcohol<ref name=infoplease>[http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0859772.html]</ref>. The drug gained increasing popularity in the 1920s, and it became even more widely used after the invention of the hypodermic needle in 1853. During the Civil War, morphine was widely used to relieve pain in soldiers who were injured or had to undergo surgery. This led to roughly 400,000 soldiers who came home with "soldier's disease" (morphine addiction). Morphine was also used to treat soldiers in the European Franco-Prussian War and many other wars<ref name=infoplease/>. It was not until the 1870s that many physicians began to realize the addictive qualities of morphine and the extent of its damaging effects on the body<ref name=morphineaddictionhelp/>. | Morphine became more commonly used in the medical community after French physician Francois Magendie published a paper in 1818 describing the use of morphine to treat pain in a young girl and help her sleep<ref name=morphineaddictionhelp/>. Interestingly, morphine was often used at first to cure opium addictions as well as alcohol addictions, because doctors at the time considered morphine less harmful than alcohol<ref name=infoplease>[http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0859772.html]</ref>. The drug gained increasing popularity in the 1920s, and it became even more widely used after the invention of the hypodermic needle in 1853. During the Civil War, morphine was widely used to relieve pain in soldiers who were injured or had to undergo surgery. This led to roughly 400,000 soldiers who came home with "soldier's disease" (morphine addiction). Morphine was also used to treat soldiers in the European Franco-Prussian War and many other wars<ref name=infoplease/>. Today, soldiers still carry morphine with them in case of being severely injured<ref name=toxipedia/>. | ||
During the 1800s, morphine was frequently mixed with ethyl alcohol to produce laudnaum, an inexpensive drug that was considered a cure for nearly all ailments<ref name=toxipedia/>. It was not until the 1870s that many physicians began to realize the addictive qualities of morphine and the extent of its damaging effects on the body<ref name=morphineaddictionhelp/>. | |||
In 1874, heroin was synthesized from morphine. The Bayer company, a pharmaceutical company, attempted to develop a non-addictive painkiller based on the structure of morphine. Instead, however, their experiments led to the creation of heroin<ref name=emsb/>. Heroin became an extremely popular drug and was initially used to cure morphine addictions, just as morphine had been used to cure opium addictions. Until the invention of heroin, morphine was more abused than any other narcotic painkiller<ref name=infoplease/>. | In 1874, heroin was synthesized from morphine. The Bayer company, a pharmaceutical company, attempted to develop a non-addictive painkiller based on the structure of morphine. Instead, however, their experiments led to the creation of heroin<ref name=emsb/>. Heroin became an extremely popular drug and was initially used to cure morphine addictions, just as morphine had been used to cure opium addictions. Until the invention of heroin, morphine was more abused than any other narcotic painkiller<ref name=infoplease/>. | ||
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Morphine retained its popularity even after many countries passed laws requiring strict regulation and labeling of medicines. In the United States, Congress passed the Harrison Narcotics Act (1914), which forbid the possession of narcotics such as morphine without a valid doctor's prescription<ref name=infoplease/>. | Morphine retained its popularity even after many countries passed laws requiring strict regulation and labeling of medicines. In the United States, Congress passed the Harrison Narcotics Act (1914), which forbid the possession of narcotics such as morphine without a valid doctor's prescription<ref name=infoplease/>. | ||
In 1924, Robert Robinson uncovered the chemical structure of morphine<ref name=Fundamentals/>. | In 1924, Robert Robinson uncovered the chemical structure of morphine<ref name=Fundamentals/>. This led to research in developing compounds similar to morphine that were not as addictive, and since the 19th century over 200 new analgesics of varying potency and addictiveness have been synthesized. Several antagonists have also been developed that can be used to treat people with morphine addiction, including naloxone (Narcan), naltrexone (Trexan), and nalorphine (Nalline)<ref name=newsmedical3>[http://www.news-medical.net/health/Morphine-Chemistry.aspx]</ref>. Methods of creating morphine synthetically were also developed, although it is still primarily obtained through processing the opium poppy. In 1952, Dr. Marshall D. Gates, Jr., patented a method for creating morphine from coal tar and petroleum distillates<ref name=newsmedical/>. | ||
Today, morphine is listed as a Schedule II drug in the United States according to the Controlled Substances Act. The United Kingdom passed the Misuse of Drugs Act in 1971, which lists morphine as a Class A drug, and in 1989 Australia designated morphine as a Schedule 8 drug under the Therapeutic Goods Act. The International Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs named morphine a Schedule 1 drug<ref name=toxipedia/>. | |||
== Morphine Abuse == | == Morphine Abuse == | ||
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*headache | *headache | ||
*sweating | *sweating | ||
*anxiety/restlessness<ref name=painemedtv>[http://pain.emedtv.com/morphine/morphine-side-effects.html]</ref><ref name=drugs>[http://www.drugs.com/sfx/morphine-side-effects.html]</ref> | *anxiety/restlessness | ||
*an urge to take more morphine | |||
*falling/unsteadiness | |||
*mood or behavior changes | |||
*confusion | |||
*slow heart rate (bradycardia) | |||
*hypotension (low blood pressure) | |||
*respiratory depression | |||
*seizures | |||
*signs of an allergic reaction, including rashes, hives, itching, swelling of the mouth or throat, and wheezing or difficulty breathing | |||
*vertigo | |||
*abnormal dreams | |||
*skipped menstrual periods | |||
*unexplained injury | |||
*anemia | |||
*back pain | |||
*blurred or double vision | |||
*changes in taste | |||
*chills | |||
*diarrhea and cramps | |||
*difficulty swallowing | |||
*dry mouth | |||
*dry skin | |||
*flushed face | |||
*fever | |||
*fluid retention | |||
*heart palpitations | |||
*hiccups | |||
*hypertension (high blood pressure) | |||
*indigestion or heartburn | |||
*insomnia | |||
*loss of appetite | |||
*erectile dysfunction, decreased sex drive, or abnormal ejaculation | |||
*stiff or shaky muscles | |||
*thirst | |||
*voice changes | |||
*weakness | |||
*weight loss | |||
*difficulty passing urine | |||
*memory loss | |||
*pinpoint pupils | |||
*depression | |||
*irritability | |||
*hallucinations<ref name=opiates>[http://www.opiates.com/morphine/morphine-side-effects.html]</ref><ref name=painemedtv>[http://pain.emedtv.com/morphine/morphine-side-effects.html]</ref><ref name=drugs>[http://www.drugs.com/sfx/morphine-side-effects.html]</ref> | |||
== References== | == References== | ||
{{reflist}} | {{reflist}} | ||
