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Morphine: Difference between revisions
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== How Morphine Works == | == How Morphine Works == | ||
[[Image:example.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Description]] | [[Image:example.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Description]] | ||
Morphine acts on the central nervous system by binding to opioid receptors. It binds primarily to the mu-receptors in the thalamic, hypothalamic, and amygdalar regions of the brain, as well as the periaqueductal grey area of the brain and | Morphine acts on the central nervous system by binding to opioid receptors. It binds primarily to the mu-receptors in the thalamic, hypothalamic, and amygdalar regions of the brain, as well as the periaqueductal grey area of the brain and the ''substantia gelatinosa'' region of the spinal cord<ref name=emsb/><ref name=toxipedia/>. It may also bind to kappa and delta-type opioid receptors<ref name=toxipedia>[http://toxipedia.org/display/toxipedia/Morphine]</ref>. Morphine also attaches to GABA inhibitory interneurons that control the inhibition of pain. The morphine blocks pain receptors, preventing endorphins and dynorphins from binding there, and it inhibits the release of neurotransmitters in the opioid receptors<ref name=drugbank>[http://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB00295]</ref>. Morphine can bind to these receptors because it has the same B-phenylthylamine unit that endorphins have. LSD and many other hallucinogens also possess this unit and can bind to the same sites<ref name=toxipedia/>. | ||
== Chemical Structure == | == Chemical Structure == | ||
In its chemical structure, morphine shares several common characteristics with other opioids. According to the "morphine rule", most opioid painkillers have an aromatic ring attached to a quaternary carbon atom which is attached to a tertiary amine by two carbon atoms. Morphine, codeine, and heroin all follow this morphine rule and have very similar structures. The morphine rule is necessary for the molecules to be effective analgesics, but many researchers have attempted to develop similar drugs based on this rule that do not have the addictive properties of morphine and the other opiates<ref name=Fundamentals>[http://books.google.com/books?id=Kl2srI6WGG8C&pg=PA393&lpg=PA393&dq=morphine+rule+aromatic+ring&source=bl&ots=W7g8HmOaFf&sig=KbDyftYB5bDxOkk4c8qSUrOiqLY&hl=en&ei=ZPuwTdKZKsHgiAKZ-qWvBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDQQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=morphine%20rule%20aromatic%20ring&f=false Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry] by John McMurry and Eric Simanek, Sixth Edition, Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2007, page 393</ref>. | The morphine molecule has five rings, with two of them at right angles to the other three, and a methyl group bonded to a nitrogen atom<ref name=emsb/>. In its chemical structure, morphine shares several common characteristics with other opioids. According to the "morphine rule", most opioid painkillers have an aromatic ring attached to a quaternary carbon atom which is attached to a tertiary amine by two carbon atoms. Morphine, codeine, and heroin all follow this morphine rule and have very similar structures. The morphine rule is necessary for the molecules to be effective analgesics, but many researchers have attempted to develop similar drugs based on this rule that do not have the addictive properties of morphine and the other opiates<ref name=Fundamentals>[http://books.google.com/books?id=Kl2srI6WGG8C&pg=PA393&lpg=PA393&dq=morphine+rule+aromatic+ring&source=bl&ots=W7g8HmOaFf&sig=KbDyftYB5bDxOkk4c8qSUrOiqLY&hl=en&ei=ZPuwTdKZKsHgiAKZ-qWvBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDQQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=morphine%20rule%20aromatic%20ring&f=false Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry] by John McMurry and Eric Simanek, Sixth Edition, Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2007, page 393</ref>. | ||
The morphine rule becomes important when morphine binds to the opioid receptors in the central nervous system. The flat aromatic ring, the two carbon atoms, and the tertiary nitrogen atom fit perfectly into the mu-receptors. When they attach to the receptors, the morphine molecules decrease the cells' affinity to attract Na<sup>+</sup> ions. This subsequently decreases the amount of neurotransmitters that these cells release<ref name=emsb/>. | |||
Morphine in its pure form is barely soluble in water; only one gram of morphine will dissolve in five liters of water. To make morphine easier to administer intravenously, morphine is combined with sulfate or hydrochloride salts, which makes it around 300 times more soluble. This also changes the pH. Morphine on its own has a pH of 8.5, but when it reacts with the sulfate or hydrochloride salts, the resulting compounds are weak acids around pH 5. Pharmaceutical companies then mix the morphine with NaOH so that it can be injected safely<ref name=emsb>[http://www.emsb.qc.ca/laurenhill/science/morphine.html]</ref>. | Morphine in its pure form is barely soluble in water; only one gram of morphine will dissolve in five liters of water. To make morphine easier to administer intravenously, morphine is combined with sulfate or hydrochloride salts, which makes it around 300 times more soluble. This also changes the pH. Morphine on its own has a pH of 8.5, but when it reacts with the sulfate or hydrochloride salts, the resulting compounds are weak acids around pH 5. Pharmaceutical companies then mix the morphine with NaOH so that it can be injected safely<ref name=emsb>[http://www.emsb.qc.ca/laurenhill/science/morphine.html]</ref>. | ||
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Freidrich Wilhelm Adam Serturner (1783-1841), a German pharmacist's assistant, first derived morphine from opium in 1803. After several experiments, he isolted an organic alkaloid from opium and found that this alkaloid was ten times more powerful than opium itself. He named this new substance morphine after Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams, due to morphine's ability to induce sleep<ref name=morphineaddictionhelp/>. Sertürner and Company first marketed morphine to the public in 1817<ref name=newsmedcal>[http://www.news-medical.net/health/Morphine-History.aspx]</ref>. | Freidrich Wilhelm Adam Serturner (1783-1841), a German pharmacist's assistant, first derived morphine from opium in 1803. After several experiments, he isolted an organic alkaloid from opium and found that this alkaloid was ten times more powerful than opium itself. He named this new substance morphine after Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams, due to morphine's ability to induce sleep<ref name=morphineaddictionhelp/>. Sertürner and Company first marketed morphine to the public in 1817<ref name=newsmedcal>[http://www.news-medical.net/health/Morphine-History.aspx]</ref>. | ||
Morphine became more commonly used in the medical community after French physician Francois Magendie published a paper in 1818 describing the use of morphine to treat pain in a young girl and help her sleep<ref name=morphineaddictionhelp/>. Interestingly, morphine was often used at first to cure opium addictions as well as alcohol addictions, because doctors at the time considered morphine less harmful than alcohol<ref name=infoplease>[http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0859772.html]</ref>. The drug gained increasing popularity in the 1920s, and it became even more widely used after the invention of the hypodermic needle in 1853. During the Civil War, morphine was widely used to relieve pain in soldiers who were injured or had to undergo surgery. This led to roughly 400,000 soldiers who came home with "soldier's disease" (morphine addiction). Morphine was also used to treat soldiers in the European Franco-Prussian War and many other wars<ref name=infoplease/>. It was not until the 1870s that many physicians began to realize the addictive qualities of morphine and the extent of its damaging effects on the body<ref name=morphineaddictionhelp/>. In 1874, heroin was synthesized from morphine. | Morphine became more commonly used in the medical community after French physician Francois Magendie published a paper in 1818 describing the use of morphine to treat pain in a young girl and help her sleep<ref name=morphineaddictionhelp/>. Interestingly, morphine was often used at first to cure opium addictions as well as alcohol addictions, because doctors at the time considered morphine less harmful than alcohol<ref name=infoplease>[http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0859772.html]</ref>. The drug gained increasing popularity in the 1920s, and it became even more widely used after the invention of the hypodermic needle in 1853. During the Civil War, morphine was widely used to relieve pain in soldiers who were injured or had to undergo surgery. This led to roughly 400,000 soldiers who came home with "soldier's disease" (morphine addiction). Morphine was also used to treat soldiers in the European Franco-Prussian War and many other wars<ref name=infoplease/>. It was not until the 1870s that many physicians began to realize the addictive qualities of morphine and the extent of its damaging effects on the body<ref name=morphineaddictionhelp/>. | ||
In 1874, heroin was synthesized from morphine. The Bayer company, a pharmaceutical company, attempted to develop a non-addictive painkiller based on the structure of morphine. Instead, however, their experiments led to the creation of heroin<ref name=emsb/>. Heroin became an extremely popular drug and was initially used to cure morphine addictions, just as morphine had been used to cure opium addictions. Until the invention of heroin, morphine was more abused than any other narcotic painkiller<ref name=infoplease/>. | |||
Morphine retained its popularity even after many countries passed laws requiring strict regulation and labeling of medicines. In the United States, Congress passed the Harrison Narcotics Act (1914), which forbid the possession of narcotics such as morphine without a valid doctor's prescription<ref name=infoplease/>. | Morphine retained its popularity even after many countries passed laws requiring strict regulation and labeling of medicines. In the United States, Congress passed the Harrison Narcotics Act (1914), which forbid the possession of narcotics such as morphine without a valid doctor's prescription<ref name=infoplease/>. | ||
