Alchemy

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Introduction

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Ancient History

DESCRIPTION

The art of alchemy is often seen as a black and occult practice, but in actuality, it is the foundation of modern chemistry. The origin of the word alchemy is frequently disputed. "Khumos", a Greek root meaning "fluid," has been proposed as a possibility while others claim that "Khemia," the Greek word for Egypt, is the source of the word alchemy; some argue that Arabs changed this word to "al-Khemia" in reference to the "Black Land" or Egypt. [1] Other viable origins include the Arabic word "al-kīmiya" which means "to weld, cast, or pour together", the Persian word for gold-- "Kimia", and the ancient Egyptian word for black-- "kmt". [2] Beyond the word, alchemy originated in China as early as 400 B.C., followed by similar practices in ancient Egypt, Persia, Greece, and India. [3] Some records seem to indicate however, that when the Macedonian Greeks conquered Egypt in the fourth century, they found alchemical records. The Emerald Tablet, attributed to a somewhat mythical Egyptian character known as Hermes-Thoth, provided the beginnings of alchemy. Unfortunately, many of these ancient Egyptian writings were probably destroyed by Emperor Diocletian in 292 A.D. during a revolt. [4] Many invaluable and significant documents were also lost in the burning of the library at Alexandria in 391 A.D. [5]

In China, alchemists sought the Grand Elixir of Immortality through traditional Taoist therapies for the mind and body, particularly acupuncture and moxibustion ("a therapy that uses mugwort herb to stimulate the circulation of blood through warm regions of the body and key acupuncture points"). [6] The Chinese Taoist monks searched for both the inner and outer elixir, the inner with plants and minerals to achieve physical immortality, and the outer with exercises to control the body's "life force". [7] The Chinese believed that the elixir would be a liquid, drinkable gold, so they largely ignored the transmutation of base metals into gold, unlike the Western world; in Europe transmutation was the chief pursuit of alchemists. [8] The Greek and Egyptian philosophies consolidated around the believed elements of earth, water, air, and fire. During the Christian era of the Roman Empire however, these Hermetic teachings appeared to challenge the established Christian doctrine of Augustine. The conflict between the two philosophies resulted in Islamic support of alchemy rather than the leaders of medieval Europe. [9] The European alchemists believed that gold was the purest substance and all other metals were inferior, leading to a desire to transform these metals into gold via an unknown substance called the Philosopher's Stone. The Stone was also thought to be the source of immortality. [10] Some alchemists pursued a special form of fire called "philosophic fire" that was believed to lead to the discovery of the legendary Philosopher's Stone. In Egypt, alchemy soon incorporated portions of astrology, using symbols like the sun for gold and the moon for silver.[11]

Arabs first introduced alchemy in Spain in the eighth century, where it soon spread to encompass medieval Europe. [12] Some historians argue that genuine alchemical practices and experimentation in Europe began much later however, in the thirteenth century. Christian alchemists developed philosophies such that, as separate parts can be chemically purified and reunited, so God and man could be united once again through alchemical means. This erroneous belief was targeted by an edict of Pope John XXII that banned all clergy from practicing alchemy. For the next few centuries, alchemy became less of a philosophy of experimentation and discovery and more of a dark and occult magic. [13] Throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries alchemy in Europe grew under the patronage of wealthy aristocrats and rulers. [14] About this time alchemy split into two groups: one continued to pursue the art of transmutation, immortality, and the metaphysical aspects of ancient alchemy; the other devoted itself to experimentation and the discovery of elements and scientific principles, leading to modern day chemistry. [15]

Famous Alchemists

Zosimus

Zosimus was one of the earliest alchemists on record, living around 250 A.D. Although he was Greek, Zosimus lived and worked in Panopolis, Egypt. He compiled an encyclopedia of twenty-eight volumes containing the remains of Greek and Egyptian writings on alchemy. These writings give valuable insight into the mummification process, mathematical formulas, and early descriptions of the alleged four elements: earth, water, fire, and air. Zosimus was an ardent believer of these four elements, and how they compose the known universe; this belief has been since been disproven. Zosimus is also credited with the discovery of arsenic and lead acetate. [16] The Divine Art of Making Gold and Silver, a work attributed to Zosimus, was written after much of the alchemical information was burned by Diocletian in 296 A.D. [17]

Geber

Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan, an Arabian alchemists known as "Geber" by the Europeans, lived around 721-815 A.D. in modern-day Iraq. Geber believed in the mystical "Philosopher's Stone", or "Elixir of Life", that could create gold out of base metals and become a liquid form that grants eternal life. Geber thought that all metals were basically composed of, and could therefore be reduced to, mercury and sulfur. Mixing these two elements in proper ratios with the "Philosopher's Stone" was supposed to form gold. Among his scientific achievements, Geber developed a way to process white lead and other methods of metal refinement, discovered ammonium chloride, mercury, salt, and sulfur, experimented with weak acids like nitric acid and vinegar. [18] He also distilled acetic acid from vinegar. [19] Geber is believed to have composed over five hundred papers on his work, but only three remain: The Sum of the Perfect Magistery, The Investigation of Perfection, and Testament. His journals are also the first to mention red oxide of mercury, silver nitrate, and acidic sublimate. [20] Ironically, one of Geber's legacies is the word "gibberish", which came from his cryptic writing style. [21]

Arnold of Villanova

Thomas Aquinas

Paracelsus

Isaac Newton

Robert Boyle

Roger Bacon

Nicolas Flamel

John Dee

Transmutation

From Alchemy to Chemistry

Modern Contributions

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References

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